Abstract
Average ambient fine particulate matter (PM2.5) concentrations have decreased in the US in recent years, but the health benefits of this improvement among different racial/ethnic groups are unknown. We estimate the associations between long-term exposure to ambient PM2.5 and cause-specific cardiovascular disease (CVD) mortality rate and assess the PM2.5-attributable CVD deaths by race/ethnicity across 3,103 US counties during 2001–2016 (n = 595,776 county-months). A 1 µg m−3 increase in PM2.5 concentration was associated with increases of 7.16 (95% confidence interval (CI): 3.81, 10.51) CVD deaths per 1,000,000 Black people per month, significantly higher than the estimates for non-Hispanic white people (1.76 (95% CI: 1.37, 2.15); difference in coefficients: 5.40 (95% CI: 2.03, 8.77), P = 0.001). No significant difference in this association was observed between Hispanic (2.66 (95% CI: −0.03, 5.35)) and non-Hispanic white people (difference in coefficients: 0.90 (95% CI: −1.81, 3.61), P = 0.523). From 2001 to 2016, the absolute disparity in PM2.5-attributable CVD mortality burden was reduced by 44.04% between non-Hispanic Black and white people and by 2.61% between Hispanic and non-Hispanic white people. However, in 2016, the burden remained 3.47 times higher for non-Hispanic Black people and 0.45 times higher for Hispanic people than for non-Hispanic white people. We call for policies that aim to reduce both exposure and vulnerability to PM2.5 for racial/ethnic minorities.
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Data availability
The monthly county-level cause-specific mortality data can be requested from the National Center for Health Statistics (https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/index.htm). Other data that support the findings of this study are available at https://zenodo.org/record/8121894 (https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.8121894)57.
Code availability
R code for this analysis is available at https://github.com/CHENlab-Yale/PM2.5_CVD_mortality_US.
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Acknowledgements
E.Z. received support from the National Institute on Aging (R21AG074238-01, E.Z.), the National Institute on Minority Health and Health Disparities (1R01MD017298-01, E.Z.), the Research Education Core of the Claude D. Pepper Older Americans Independence Center at Yale School of Medicine (P30AG021342, E.Z.) and the Institution for Social and Policy Studies at Yale University. I.O. received support from the National Institutes on Health Director’s Early Independence Award (DP5OD029636, I.O.). Research reported in this publication was supported by the National Institute On Minority Health And Health Disparities of the National Institutes of Health under Award Number R01MD016054 (K.C.). The content is solely the responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily represent the official views of the National Institutes of Health. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish or preparation of the manuscript.
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Y.M. conducted formal analyses and drafted the manuscript. K.C. conceived of and supervised the conduct of this study and edited the manuscript. E.Z. applied and managed the mortality dataset, supervised the statistical analysis and revised the manuscript. I.O. contributed to the writing and manuscript revision. Y.L. and H.K. contributed to the interpretation of results and manuscript revision. All authors reviewed and approved the final version of this manuscript.
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Nature Human Behaviour thanks Sebhat Erqou, Srinivasa Katikireddi and the other, anonymous, reviewer(s) for their contribution to the peer review of this work.
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Supplementary Methods 1–3, Figs.1–9, Tables 1–7 and References.
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Ma, Y., Zang, E., Opara, I. et al. Racial/ethnic disparities in PM2.5-attributable cardiovascular mortality burden in the United States.
Nat Hum Behav (2023). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-023-01694-7
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Received: 25 October 2022
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Accepted: 02 August 2023
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Published: 31 August 2023
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-023-01694-7